Death of Hector Summary Essay

Except for Hector, the Trojans are inside the walls of Troy. Apollo turns to Achilles to tell him he is wasting his time pursing a god since he can’t kill him. Achilles is angry, but turns around to return to Troy where Priam is the first to spot him. He tells Hector he will be killed since Achilles is much stronger. If not killed he will be sold into slavery as has already happened to others of Priam’s sons. Priam can’t dissuade Hector, even when his wife Hecuba joins the effort. Hector gives some thought to going inside but fears the ridicule of Polydamas, who had given sage advice the day before. Since Hector wants to die in glory, he has a better chance facing Achilles. He thinks about giving Achilles Helen and the treasure and adding to it an even split of the treasure of Troy, but Hector rejects these ideas realizing Achilles will just cut him down, and there would be no glory in that. As Achilles bears down on Hector, Hector begins to lose his nerve. Hecto r runs towards the Scamander River (Xanthus). The two warriors race three times around Troy. Zeus looks down and feels sorry for Hector, but tells Athena to go down and do what she wants without restraint. Achilles is chasing Hector with no chance of reprieve unless Apollo steps in (which he does not do). Athena tells Achilles to stop running and face Hector. She adds that she will persuade Hector to do the same. Athena disguises herself as Deiphobus and tells Hector the two of them should go fight Achilles together. Hector is thrilled to see his brother has dared to come out of Troy to help him. Athena uses the cunning of disguise until Hector addresses Achilles to say it’s time to end the chase. Hector requests a pact that they will return each other’s body whoever dies. Achilles says there are no binding oaths between lions and men. He adds that Athena will kill Hector in just a moment. Achilles hurls his spear, but Hector ducks and it flies past. Hector does not see Athena retrieve the spear and return it to Achilles. Hector taunts Achilles that he didn’t know the future after all. Then Hector says it’s his turn. He throws his spear, which hits, but glances off the shield. He calls to Deiphobus to bring his lance, but, of course, there is no Deiphobus. Hector realizes he has been tricked by Athena and that his end is near. Hector wants a glorious death, so he draws his sword and swoops down on Achilles, who charges with his spear. Achilles knows the armor Hector is wearing and puts that knowledge to use, finding the weak point at the collarbone. He pierces Hector’s neck, but not his windpipe. Hector falls down while Achilles taunts him with the fact that his body will be mutilated by dogs and birds. Hector begs him not to, but to let Priam ransom him. Achilles tells him to stop begging, that if he could, he would eat the corpse himself, but since he can’t, he’ll let the dogs do it, instead. Hector curses him, telling him Paris will kill him at the Scaean Gates with the help of Apollo. Then Hector dies. Achilles pokes holes in Hector’s ankles, ties a strap through them and attaches them to the chariot so he can drag the body in the dust. Hecuba and Priam cry while Andromache is asking her attendants to draw a bath for her husband. Then she hears a piercing wail from Hecuba, suspects what has happened, emerges, looks down from the rampart where she witnesses her husband’s corpse being dragged, and faints. She laments that her son Astyanax will have neither land nor family and so will be despised. She has the women burn the store of Hector’s clothing in his honor.

Quiz: Communication Processes and Models

Practice Quiz 1. According to the linear model of communication, at any given point in time a person is sending a message and receiving a message. a. True b. False 2. Cognitive complexity increases a person’s communication competence. a. True b. False 3. We receive and respond to messages from another person at the same time that she or he is receiving and responding to us is an example of the _____________ model. a. Transactional b. interactive c. linear d. cognitive e. none of the above 4.If you and your friend need to negotiate what â€Å"frequently† means when it comes to how often you clean your apartment, this represents that: a. Sending and receiving are usually simultaneous. b. Meanings exist in and among people. c. Environment and noise affect communication. d. Channels make a difference. e. none of the above 5. Being unable to concentrate on what your mother is saying because you are upset about something that happened with a friend is an example of: a. extern al noise b. psychological noise c. physiological noise d. static e. one of the above 6. The dynamic process that involves participants decoding and encoding messages is called: a. environment b. noise c. transactional d. context e. none of the above 7. Interpersonal communication can be distinguished from impersonal communication based on qualities of: a. uniqueness b. interdependence c. personality d. all of the above e. a and b only 8. An example of physiological noise is: a. anger b. poor sound c. insecurity d. headache e. none of the above 9. You answer your first question at a job interview and the interviewer frowns.Which characteristic of communication best describes the situation? a. Communication is dyadic. b. Feedback can be verbal or nonverbal c. Feedback is situational. d. Communication is dependent on personalized rules. e. None of the above describes it. 10. The idea that we might feel badly when our mother criticizes us, but less upset when a friend makes the same obs ervation reveals that: a. Communication is transactional. b. Communication can be intentional or unintentional. c. Communication has a content and relational dimension. d. Communication is irreversible. e. none of the above

Nortel Networks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nortel Networks - Essay Example When a customer initiates an order, it goes to one of twenty Logistics Operating Centers (LOCs) worldwide, which then determines the best combination of services that could be exchanged among the customer-centered rings. It is the LOC that is in-charge of the order that looks for the Nortel Network partners, key parts sources, and assemblers that are part of that ring around the customer and that would best meet the customer's order at the lowest cost and in the fastest possible time. This LLSS-based system differs from Nortel's old supply chain structure, which was built around an orderly sequence of activities that happened one after another. This traditional supply chain needed long lead times and higher costs. With the new global logistics system, designed around a networked framework, activities happen continually at the same time. What does this mean Rather than wait for the completion of a prior activity, say the assembly of sub-components before deliveries are made, Nortel's worldwide network of partners and suppliers are constantly on the move taking care of order fulfillment from several customers. An OEM for example can be doing production and assembly work for several clients at a time, each one with different or similar requirements, and managing various parts of the supply chain according to standards established by Nortel. In other words, by outsourcing the "lower value-added" activities like assembly to third party providers, Nortel can focus instead on the high value-added activities like the management of the global supply chain or research and development to improve existing products or come up with new ones based on more advanced technologies. This is only one among the many advantages that Nortel derives from its global logistics system. What are the others We have already discussed the customer-centered focus of the whole organization. By placing the customer at the center of the logistics network, Nortel can work at the important but very tough and challenging task of ensuring that everyone maintains that customer focus. Customers then feel special, being the center of attention of the whole global organization, knowing that its orders could be met no matter how tough its specifications and deadlines would be. Of course, it is hard work for Nortel to do the work of integrating all of its alliance partners all over the globe, but that is part of the design of the system. We can also see how the system ensures speed of delivery to meet tight customer deadlines, because the arrangement gives Nortel and its partners the flexibility it needs to get the work done on time. Instead of managing the whole supply chain, which requires coordinating several factors at the same time, Nortel's system delegates the management of portions of that supply chain by outsourcing. Rather than sweat on the large stuff, it seems that Nortel and its partners would rather sweat on the parts of that large stuff that they can manage well, and to concentrate on the "large stuff" of coordinating 20 manageable LOCs. This allows Nortel to keep its costs down, which it does in a very specific way. By keeping the suppliers of key parts in the supply chain conveniently located close to

Organisation of Business Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organisation of Business - Research Paper Example An example of a hospitality organization chart is shown in the diagram below. The above diagram is a form of a functional organization chart. According to Drury (2004) a functional organization structure, within a company, is one in which all activities of a similar type are placed under the control of the appropriate departmental head. An organization chart usually illustrates the organization structure. An organization structure denotes the way people are grouped in an organization and to whom they report (Drury 2004). The general manager is the leader of the organization. He is in charge of the entire organization and he or she has the responsibility for ensuring that all operations in the hotel are run smoothly (Wood & Brotherton 2008. All the heads of department report to the general manager. Below the General Manager are the heads of departments who are illustrated by the green color. The heads of department are in charge of their departments. They have to ensure that the set their goals and that their goals are in line with the overall organization goals. The heads of department have the responsibility of communicating their goals to the other employees below them (Stair, 2011). Furthermore, heads of department have the duty of preparing the duty roasters of their specific departments. In addition to these duties, the heads of departments have to know the staff requirements of their departments and can also propose the firing of some specific employees that are not fit in their departments (Letavec, 2006). At most hotels, all the heads of departments are usually equal in rank and may meet with the general manager to discuss the direction and goals of the organization. Departmental employees are below the heads of departments in blue color illustrated in the diagram above. They usually report to the heads of department (Andrews, 2009). Their main function is to follow the goals of their specific departments and ensure that they achieve their

Palm Overview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Palm Overview - Essay Example This paper is prepared with the objective of providing a clear understanding regarding the strategic position of Palm Inc. The paper includes mission and vision of the company. In addition to these the paper also contains the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities of Palm Inc. Palm Inc. California based Palm Inc was established in the year 1992. Till July, 2005 the company was known as PalmOne Inc. (Business Week, No Date). The company provides mobile products to its individual as well as business customers who are spread throughout the world. It is popular for offering integrated technologies that allow people in staying connected with friends, families and colleagues. Thanks to these technologies, customers of Palm Inc. are enabled to share and access all the important and latest information and hence manage their everyday lives more effectively. The company employs almost 1000 people (Business Week, No Date). Current Situation Mission & Vision During the early days Palmà ¢â‚¬â„¢s main mission was to become a leader in the software market for handheld computers as well as for various other communication devices (Butter & Pogue, 2002). With the passage of time, the company has broadened its view. It has thought beyond becoming a leading software maker in the world of handheld computer. At present, the company’s vision is improving and enhancing the daily lives of individuals and organizations. The company aims to enable it’s customers to access and share any type of information through various advance mode of communication at any time from anywhere in the world (Tiffany & Peterson, 2007). Strengths Palm Inc. is mainly known for smart phones. It is one of the leading names in the world of ‘Personal Digital Assistants’ (Ogg, E. 2010). The company has an exclusive brand identity due to its strong presence in the market of handheld computers. In fact there was a time when the company used to dominate also 70% of the handheld com puter market in US (Ogg, E. 2010). As a result, it can be said that the company has reasonably strong brand image in the mobile communication market. After being acquired by a big company like HP, Palm is certainly in a better position now. HP is known to be one of the biggest companies in the computer manufacturing industry. It has strong presence in all the major PC markets in the world. Palm is expected to get all the possible financial support from HP to complete its major projects. Furthermore, the excellent brand image of HP is likely to help the company in the process of selling its products in the global markets. Palm Inc deals with high end technologies and it has enough technical expertise to challenge the big brands like Apple, Microsoft and Google. With the help of HP, the company can improve its technological base and come up with new advanced high end products for its customers. The famous webOS of Palm is still one of the best operating systems that are ever designed specifically for various mobile applications. The company is also famous for the creation of Pre which is considered as one of the best smart phones in the world (Saitto and Levy, 2010). Weaknesses Palm Inc., one of the most innovative companies in the high end computer

How Far Do You Agree That Video Games have had a Negative Effect on Essay

How Far Do You Agree That Video Games have had a Negative Effect on Society - Essay Example This paper declares that Healthy mind needs a healthy body which means that there needs to be certain level of balance in life. A person needs proper outdoor activity as to refresh his mind and make it energetic to handle what life has to offer. This is the traditional concept of games and health that has been successful for ages. Video Games totally negate this aspect and physical activity is totally lost in the whole process of so called ‘fun’. This report makes a conclusion that various model of gaming software’s are especially designed for this purpose. Moreover if properly controlled, this can be a good sporting and informative event for a child provided that proper choices are being made. This side of this is sadly limited in today’s world and is mostly used only for promotion in television advertisements. Just like everything else, Video games have a bright side and a dark side but as shown with various dimensions above that its negative aspects totally over dominate the positive side. It is advised to keep a proper check on this and this should never be allowed as the sole source of entertainment. No one can deny the importance of physical activity. For a person’s mind and body, half an hour running every day is far better than playing videos games for couple of hours. This seems to be high time we promote strong family ties, better physical health and lead a health and progressive life rather tha n being dominated by technology.

Stereotypical view of Vietnamese exchange students as communists Research Paper

Stereotypical view of Vietnamese exchange students as communists - Research Paper Example After the end of the war, the American government accepted thousands of refugees from Vietnam as citizens of the United States (Ferry 18). Before the end of the war, there were only a few thousand Vietnamese living in America, majority of whom were students, spouses of American military personnel, civilians who served in South Vietnam, or Vietnamese diplomatic corps members. As the number of Vietnamese living in America increased, some Americans had stereotypical view of them as communists. In particular, there is a stereotypical view of Vietnamese students as communists. These stereotypes have been fed by anti-communist ideology that continues to persist in many of the America’s learning institutions (Ashwill 13). This paper will discuss the stereotypical view of Vietnamese exchange students as communists. After the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, waves of migration from Vietnam to the United States were witnessed. The number of Vietnamese seeking refuge in America rose consi derably over the years. The Orderly Departure Program that was created by the United States and that allowed people who were interviewed and approved by American authorities to migrate to the United States further enhanced immigration into the United States from Vietnam (Parker 14). While Vietnam War-caused instability was the main reason for immigration from Vietnam to the United States, other factors contributed to the migration. When the United States withdrew, the South Vietnamese was toppled by the North Vietnam and the Vietnamese with ties with South Vietnam government had to seek refuge in the America to avoid being oppressed or killed (Ferry 55). Poor economic and political situation in Vietnam caused immigration. The war between China and Vietnam in 1979 further led to immigration. Since the end of the Vietnam War, the United States of America supported South Vietnam and accepted those refugees who had close ties with the American military and South Vietnamese government. G reater social and economic stability greatly contributed to the immigration – it was a major attraction for immigrants to the United States because it presented more and greater opportunities for the Vietnamese (Parker 14). Available data indicate that the Vietnamese are America’s fourth largest minority group. Recent data also indicate that there is increasing number of Vietnamese exchange students in America’s learning institutions, particularly universities and colleges (Lorenzo, Frost and Reinherz 289). Since the America’s involvement in the Vietnam War that was viewed as aimed at preventing expansion of communism, stereotypes emerged regarding Vietnamese people in America, including students. There are various types of stereotypes that are assigned to Vietnamese exchange students and that \ often create conflicts with their peers and cause them emotional distress (Ashwill 13). The main stereotype assigned to Vietnamese exchange student is that they a re communists and that they subscribe to communism ideology. Most of them are viewed advocating for communism tendencies even when they are pursuing genuine cause during their studies in various colleges and universities around America (Educational Testing Service para4). Since the Vietnam War was associated with anti-communist ideology, most

Definition of The Word Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Definition of The Word Technology - Essay Example The discovery of one technology paves the way for the discovery of another new technology because there is no short cut to success. In order to achieve a goal, we have to move step by step. Human beings have made rapid inroads into the world of technology. The world technology plays a pivotal role in this world. For me, the word technology is very important. I see it the mean to peace, stability, and prosperity. Technology has revolutionized the world in the past, making better out lives in the present time and making it easy to tackle future challenges to the world. The wheel is regarded as one of the greatest discovery and technology by man because it had revolutionized the transportation. Another important technology was the steam engine, and it was discovered by James Watt. The discovery of the steam engine paved the way for the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century in England. Later, 19th and 20th centuries witnessed great inventions and technological advancements in the history of the world. And no in the 21st century, with each day we are finding new and new solutions to our problems. Gone are the days when people had been influenced by the environment. In modern day world, human beings are at the helm of the world. Some people mistakenly think that only computer science related innovations are technology. It is not true. Technology can be any scientific method of performing work in less effort and more productivity. It is well-established fact that necessity is the mother of invention or technology. So from this fact, it is evident that every invention or technology is for some benefit of human beings. It is important to mention here that some technologies are invented to destroy human beings rather than serve human beings. Atom bombs and Hydrogen bombs are perfect examples of this fact. The technology is so much important for human beings. Technology has revolutionized the world. We did not get here in a day.  Ã‚  

Radio Ad Essay Example for Free

Radio Ad Essay Are you elderly? Are you having problems with arthritis, osteoporosis, or injuries from falling? Here is the information that you have been looking for, how to promote a healthy musculoskeletal system, from none other than Dr. Solomon, Concierge MD. Me: Dr. Solomon, what exactly is the musculoskeletal system? Dr. Solomon: The musculoskeletal system consists of your bones, and your muscles. In this system one is as important as the other. Bones are important because they provides needed protection for your organs as well as providing a support to the muscles so that they can function properly. Me: What are the risk factors for arthritis? Dr. Solomon: There are several factors that can contribute to developing arthritis. Anywhere between the types of shoes that you wear, to the type of beverage you consume in the morning. Me: What can we do to prevent arthritis? Dr. Solomon: In order to decrease the chance of getting arthritis, maintaining a healthy weight and exercise routine is a must. Me: What about osteoporosis risk factors and prevention? Dr. Solomon: There are several risk factors for osteoporosis, some of which are not preventable. These risk factors are sex, age, race, family history, and frame size. There are also risk factors that are associated with your hormone levels, dietary factors, steroid use, and lifestyle choices. Ways to prevent osteoporosis depend on whether it is due to environmental factors, or genetics. Genetic form of osteoporosis cannot be prevented. However, you can decrease your risk by not being too skinny, because the bones deteriorate faster, consuming calcium, exercising and keeping a proper meal plan. Me: Now we have heard about arthritis and osteoporosis, what about injuries sustained from falling? Dr. Solomon: We all know that the elderly are at risk for falling for a number of different reasons. The risk for falls increases with age. However, age does not cause all falls. Most falls are the result for another causes. Muscle weakness in the legs, blood pressure drops, dizziness, slower reflexes, etc. Some things that can be done to prevent falling can be removing clutter, loose rugs, carrying heavy items up or down stairs or uneven flooring, not having rails for stairs or bathroom bars. Me: Well that is all the time that we have for today. Thank you so much for being here with us Dr. Solomon, and for all of the information that you provided us with. References: http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/74700/E82552.pdf http://media.pearsoncmg.com/pcp/pls_1256317047/ch15_pg430_thru_433.pdf http://www.slideshare.net/sacklax40/musculoskeletal-system-324696

Neurofibromatosis Case Essay Example for Free

Neurofibromatosis Case Essay Effects / Symptoms Neurofibromatosis causes a deficiency targeting the nervous system as part of a genetic disorder. The two most common types are abbreviated into NF1 and NF2. NF1 is characterized by cafà © au lait spots, or patches of tan and light brown skin. Another characteristic would be neurofibromas, which are soft, fleshy growths that grow on the skin, and in some cases, under it. The disorder also enters the skeletal level and enlarges and distorts bones as well as adds curvature to the spine. Occasionally tumors develop on the brain or spinal cord. Half of the people with NF1 also inhibit learning disabilities. The less common disorder, NF2, characterizes itself by multiple tumors on cranial and spinal nerves. Hearing loss will nearly inevitably occur in the early teens for people with NF2. Genetic Cause Most commonly Neurofibromatosis is passed on by family members through genes. However, 30 to 50% of newly diagnosed people have no family history of the condition, which can be attributed to a spontaneous mutation in the gene. Once this mutation has occurred, future generation will be at risk of getting the disorder. Genetic Cause The causes of Nf1 are a mutation on the 17 chromosome at q11.2. The mutation mainly affects the development of nerve cells and tissues. The changes in nerve tissues cause tumors or other abnormalities. The tumors can be harmless, in some situations. Nf1 is dominant and autosomal; meaning it will affect males and females equally. Nf2 is a slightly different. Nf2 is characterized by a mutation on the 22q12.2 chromosome. Nf2 is also autosomal dominant. The mutations has significant physical causes consisting of meningiomas and other symptoms consisting of a lot of big words that not even spell check understands. The main idea of the symptoms is that they’ll grow deformities, usually internally, on the spinal cord and other nerve tissues. These deformities can result in loss of hearing, blindness, etc. Treatment/Cure There is no cure for each Nf1 and Nf2, so tough luck if you have it, but there is some good news. Type one of neurofibromatosis is less potent than type two because type two forms tumors on spinal tissue, brain tissue, and other nerve tissue that cause problems to motor skills, with this knowledge it can be concluded that surgery is the best course of treatment for type two. Surgery focuses on removing these tumors, increasing the effectiveness of the effected nerves. However false hope is not being circulated through this class brochure and it should be known that surgery will not serve as a cure, only an attempt to reduce the symptoms of the disease. For type one surgery can be used for treatment, however because the tumors don’t affect nerve tissue the surgery won’t be as an effective treatment. It should be noted that new laser techniques have been promising, however nothing has completely removed the cafà © au lait spots, so if your aiming to get rid of those than your luck hasn’t come through for you, because no technique has permanently removed them. Chemotherapy has been used for this disease, but is widely controversial. However it simply comes down to a personal decision. Work Cited – Websites OMIM Entry # 162200 NEUROFIBROMATOSIS, TYPE I; NF1. OMIM Entry # 162200 NEUROFIBROMATOSIS, TYPE I; NF1. John Hopkins University, n.d. Web. 18 Feb. 2013. Evans, D. Gareth. Summary. Neurofibromatosis 2. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 14 Oct. 1998. Web. 18 Feb. 2013. NINDS Neurofibromatosis Information Page. Neurofibromatosis Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Feb. 2013. Work Cited – Book Rubenstein, Allan E., Richard P. Bunge, and David E. Housman. Neurofibromatosis. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences, 1986. Print. DiSimone, Ronald E., and Arnold T. Berman. Neurofibromatosis. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1989. Print.

How has management theory advanced over the past hundred years

How has management theory advanced over the past hundred years Are the structures and ideas of management theorists of the past still analogous to the work done by modern managers of today? Management theorists of the past have labeled three clear categories to help define the job description of a manager. These are management functions, roles and skills, which were identified as being highly influential to the success of the manager, defined as someone whose primary responsibility is to carry out the management process. This essay looks at the work of three management theorists, Henri Fayol, Robert Katz and Henry Mintzberg and how their work compares to todays modern day managers. Henri Fayol, a French industrialist, believed that management could be taught and was therefore always looking on improving the quality of management. In 1916 he wrote the book administration industrielle et gà ©nà ©rale which presented his views on the proper management of organisations and the people within them. This is known as administrative management, which is a style of management that focuses on managing the total organisation. Fayol believed that there were five management functions in which a manager must employ on his business to achieve success. These five functions were planning, organising, commanding, co-ordination and controlling. This is the functional view of management as it is on a day-to-day level. It describes the functions that a manager must carry out on a daily basis, which Fayol realised when working as a successful managing director of a mining company. He saw there was a need for managers to be trained due to the increasing complexity and growth of orga nisations over the world. The Planning function looks at the managers ability to look ahead, taking into account the operating environment, forecasting what is possible and provide direction for the firms employees. Secondly the organising function is a key management function that is defined as the process of assigning tasks, allocating resources and arranging activities to implement plans. Managers have to group and deploy resources, either human resources such as employees or equipment resources such as machines, in the best possible way to achieve the goals of the organisation. Thirdly Fayol identified was for a manager to command, which is to lead, select and evaluate to get the best work towards the plan. Managers are required to do these tasks as it helps them to achieve the task that they had planned. The fourth function Henri Fayol identified was coordination, which is to fit diverse efforts together and ensure information is shared and problems are solved. Finally, Fayol i dentified the fifth aspect of management functions as controlling, which is the process of measuring performance and taking action to ensure desired results. The manager has to ensure that the functions of planning, leading and organising take place in such a way hat they are controlled through timely, accurate and valid feedback based on a transparent measurement strategy. Fayols management functions are focused on the key relationships between a businesses personnel and its management. Harvard Scholar Robert Katz classified three essential skills for managers of a firm, technical skills, human skills and conceptual skills. Technical skills is the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise in you work, for example skills learnt through a formal education such as University or TAFE and then further development through on the job training. These skills are very important in low-level management where the manager is still hands on in the business. Human Skills is the ability to work well in cooperation with other people, this is highly important at all levels of management as it shows a spirit of trust, enthusiasm and involvement in interpersonal relationships. An important concept of human skills is emotional intelligence, which is the ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively which Katz identified as influential to a firms success due to the high interpersonal nature of business. Finally, there are Conceptual skills, which is the ability t o think analytically and solve complex problems. Katz identified this skill as part of the three essential skills of managers as all good managers have the ability to view situations broadly and to solve problems to the benefit of everyone else. Managers with conceptual skills have the ability to break down problems into smaller parts, which is important for top level managers but is relatively unimportant for low lever managers. Katzs three essential skills of management are a requirement for business that want to be success in modern day society. Management theorist Henry Mintzberg in his book the nature of managerial work (Mintzberg, H 1973, The nature of management, New York) written in 1973 offers an observation of corporate chief executives. He says there was no break in the pace of activity during office hours. The mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ telephone callsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and meetingsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ accounted for almost every minute from the moment these executives entered their offices in the morning until they departed in the evenings (Mintzberg, H 1973, The nature of management, New York). In todays modern era of technology this would add email to the list of preoccupations a manager deals with on a daily basis. Mintzberg had realised the importance of how a manager uses his controlling powers and he recognised three important managerial roles in which a manager must successfully perform in order for the manager to be able to run the business at its most efficient level. The three roles in which Mintzberg recognized were int erpersonal, informational and decisional roles which can be further split into ten more specific roles. Interpersonal roles are how a manager interacts with other people, both within the business like employees and external to the firm like customers. Interpersonal roles for managers can be further separated into whether the manager is a figurehead, leader or liason in the firm. Informational roles are how a manager exchanges and processes information which the managers role is then to either monitor, disseminator and spokesperson for the firm. Finally, decisional roles which is how a manager uses information in decision making and the managers role is then to be an entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator or negotiator depending on the scenarios at hand for the manager. The roles of management are all interconnected and all managers must be prepared to perform the in order to see the best from their business. These management theorists however wrote their management functions, roles and skills in the 20th century, so are they still relevant in our 21st century business environment? An internal endeavor made by Google, the worlds largest search engine, looked at what the eight most important traits for a manager to have to be successful. The use of the article 8 traits of stellar managers, defined by googlers, written by Judith Aquino helps to link the management theories of Henri Fayol, Robert Katz and Henry Mintzberg to modern day managers of the 21st century. The article, written on the 15 of March 2011, brings a modern day link to the management theorists of the 20th century. The importance of managers having technical skills in the workplace is seen by its inclusion in the 8 traits of stellar management. It is important for managers to have these skills as they then have the ability to understand the different challenges and help their employees solve the problems that they are facing. This important trait for managers is linked to Robert Katzs management skills. Katz believed that one of his three essential skills for managers were that they had technical skills. This is seen as an important trait for managers of the 21st century as employees want to be managed by someone who knows what they are doing and is able to give them advice on how to solve the various problems that they are likely to face in the day to day life of the business. With the survey showing that Katzs technical skills are still an important trait which is admired in the business workplace makes me wonder whether the three management theorists, Robert Katz, Henri Fayol and Henry Mintz bergs work is still relevant in a 21st century business context. Former CEO of General Electric, Jack Welch said good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision and relentlessly drive it in competition. Google employees have recognised the importance of the business and its manager having a clearly outlined vision and a strategy for the employees. The manager is required to lead the employees by keeping all staff involved and working towards the teams common goals and business vision. When looking at the management theorists of the 20th century we can see that they all have their opinions on a businesses vision and strategy. Henry Mintzbergs leadership principle is related to the ways in which the firm looks to achieve its vision. Without a manager who is willing to lead his employees they will lack direction in their work, increasing the chance of mistakes being made by misled employees or the firm moving away from its corporate vision. Henri Fayols planning function is also related more to the firms busi ness strategy than the vision as it looks at how the business will enter its business strategy into the business environment to help reach its vision. These two theories are still relevant in todays business environment as shown by their relevance to a managers ability to have a clear vision and strategy. Career development is an important aspect of a managers roles when running the business as employees want to feel like their efforts are being noticed and that their hard work is furthering their careers. A good manager is a man who isnt worried about his own career but rather the careers of those who work for him. Managers should make it known to their employees that they are a valued member of the business and that the work the employees do for the firm will pay of with promotions and pay rises in the future. Helping employees is linked to the management theories of Mintzberg and Fayol as it is both a role and a function that the manager must undertake in order to successfully manager their employees. The fifth most important trait recognised by Google employees was the ability for their managers tot be good communicators and willing to listen to ideas from all employees. It is important for managers to listen to others as well as sharing their opinion as then the opinions and concerns of your employees are heard and can be looked at more closely by the manager. Henri Fayols commanding function shows the importance of being a good communicator and listener for managers as the function requires them to lead, select and evaluate the workers to get the best out of them. This function recognises the importance of employees ideas in the success of the business and the manager therefore needs to evaluate proposed ideas to get the best from the team. American businessman Lee Iacocca said on communication you can have brilliant ideas, but if you cant get them across, your ideas wont get you anywhere (Croce and Lyon 2004, p.69). Henry Mintzbergs interpersonal roles are the managers respons ibility when dealing with employees and their ideas. Robert Katz provides two management skills on the communication with employees and their ideas. Google recognising the importance of communication in the organisation as one of the three essential skills a manager must have to be successful shows Katzs theory of interpersonal skills. Katz also provides a more precise skill in which managers should have, this being communication skills, defined as the ability both to convey ideas and information to others effectively and to be receptive to ideas and information from others. This skill that Katz states as being important to managerial success is what Google employees hold in high regard from their managers as shown by its inclusion in the 8 traits of a stellar manager. Henry Mintzbergs informational roles, which is the processing of information, is recognised in Googles survey where they admire managers who are productive and results orientated. Mintzbergs informational role accepts the need for managers to focus on helping the team achieve its goals by prioritizing work and removing obstacles. Robert Katzs decision-making skills, defined as the ability to recognise and define problems and opportunities correctly then to select an appropriate course of action to solve problems and capatilise on opportunities, shows that his theory looks at how the business can be more productive and achieve their results through eliminating any problems and taking advantage of any opportunities the firm may encounter. Employees feeling that they belong as an important part of the business success is one of the key tasks a manager must undertake when running the firm. Ensuring that new employees feel welcome and get to know your employees. Robert Katzs interpersonal skills are linked to this trait recognised by Google employees as it involves the relationships between employees and managers, both working and outside of work relationships, to make the employee feel a part of the team. Henri Fayols Controlling function is also interrelated with taking interest in your team members success and well-being as managers need to make sure everything happens according to plan, with corrective action in place. Fayol however has a more minor point in the controlling function, which is feedback, and this shows the employees that their input is important and taken into consideration when they offer ideas to the managers of the firm. At number two, Google employees decided that a managers ability to empower your employees and to not micromanage was a trait that they respected in their managers. Giving employees the space to tackle problems on their own but still be there for advice is something that employees admired as it provides them with a feeling of responsibility and importance in the firm. Katzs time management skills is important when not micro-managing as the ability for the manager to delegate work to his staff and then empower them to complete these on their own. Mintzbergs decisional role is also important for managers as it involves how they allocate their resources (employees) to job certain jobs that are required. Finally Fayols Organising function is important as the manager is required to provide and mobalise resources, which can be human resources such as employees, to implement the plan. The most important trait in stellar managers defined by a survey done by Google says that being a good coach is what they admire most in a manager. A manager who can provide specific feedback through regular one-on-one meetings with employees, as well as offering solutions that are tailored to each employees strengths. John Wooden said, make sure that team members know they are working with you, not for you. Relationships are the best way for employees to feel as though they are on an equal level to manager, which is therefore why Henry Mintzbergs interpersonal roles theory is highly important to becoming a successful manager. Robert Katzs interpersonal skills are also applicable to being a good coach, as they are required to communicate with, understand and motivate both individuals and groups. These two management theories along with communication skills are the most influential management theories in being a good coach to their employees. The work of management theorists of the past is still admired and applicable to modern managers in the 21st century. Googles survey shows a list of the most important traits seen in a manager in the 21st century, and I have shown that there are many links that can be drawn between the work of management theorists Robert Katz, Henry Mintzberg and Henri Fayol and modern day managers of the 21st century.

The Use of Images in William Carlos Williams, The Young Housewife Essa

The Use of Images in William Carlos Williams', The Young Housewife As is typical of most Modernist poetry, William Carlos Williams uses very specific images in "The Young Housewife" to reveal not merely a particular circumstance or event, but to also suggest underlying themes and ideas of his subject matter. For example, he gives to the reader various real and imagined images, such her moving about in negligee behind closed doors, or her going about her daily affairs, that are at once very seductive and suggestive of ideas that supercede their appearances. These images especially accentuate the young housewife's naturalness and beauty. However, they are quickly contrasted by a comparison drawn by Williams of the young lady to a fallen leaf-a comparison that initially seems completely bizarre and esoteric. One, in fact, wonders what Williams' purpose is in suddenly changing the mood of the poem to make this comparison. Upon close inspection, however, the comparison actually proves to be less confusing than it appears. In fact, when one considers the nature of a fallen leaf and compares it with various aspects of the young housewife's life, possible explanations begin to arise that clarify Williams' possible intent. Primary to understanding the comparison, is of course, understanding the nature of leaves and more particularly fallen leaves. Universally, leaves are considered to play both a functional and ornamental role for trees. On the functional level, leaves enable photosynthesis and thereby give nourishment to the tree. On the ornamental level, they enrich the appearance of the tree, giving it more color and substance. In fact, leaves are widely considered to be the evidence of a tree's vivacity. La... ... young housewife's sexual nature and beauty is to William and how much emphasis he puts on her captivity in her house, it becomes easier to understand the parallel of her to a fallen leaf. To Williams, the young housewife is like a beautiful leaf that needs to stay connected to its life force in order to maintain its beauty and vitality and even continue to nourish the tree. Otherwise it will inevitably dry up, become colorless and eventually die. Her marriage has separated her from the world and from her life force and will eventually cause her to lose her beauty and pristine nature. It is only a matter of time, in fact, before she becomes one of the leaves that Williams drives over in his car. Works Cited: Williams, William Carlos. â€Å"The Young Housewife.† Anthology of Modern American Poetry. Ed. Cary Nelson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Educating Rita :: Social Issues Racism Equality Essays

Educating Rita Civilization has a tendency to attempt to divide people into different groups. Our environment weighs and measures us; then places us into a certain company. Frank and Rita are the very example of two persons placed in very different social compartments. Their places in society differ greatly as do their roles as student and teacher. And yet as one examines the script of Educating Rita it seems as though two people, who society has attempted to separate from each other in every possible way, still have the world in common. The first big difference in the two characters' social status is their sex. Rita is a woman, Frank is a man. Though we may try to deny it, there is quite a difference between what is expected from men and women. Age as well plays a large part in terms of theses expectations. Frank is middle-aged whereas Rita is still in her late twenties. Rita is facing masses of peer pressure, it is expected of her that she should now have children and become a housewife. Her being fairly young and married, the thought of her going back to school instead of having babies is unheard of, quite abnormal, and even unacceptable. Frank, in contrast, is a middle-aged man and a divorcà ©. As far as social pressure is concerned, he is now free to do his liking. He has already filled his middle-class duties; he is educated, he has something of a career and he has been married. He now has a girlfriend, which people regard that he is entitled to. Nobody expects him to make a deeper commitment to his girlfriend, due, it seems, to the fact that he has already been married once. These differences lead to a certain lack of empathy on Frank's behalf. Frank doesn't understand Rita's situation, the social pressure put on her is incomprehensible to him. Frank believes that life is a simple matter: don't love your husband anymore, get a divorce; don't want to have children, don't have children. What he does not see, is that Rita is bound by the ways of her society, she's not allowed to differ from her mates, which has a greater impact on her than Frank seems to realise. In a way of thinking, Frank is free and Rita is not. Rita is bound by a lot of expectations to live up to, whereas Frank has leave to simply enjoy the rest of his

Applying Leadership Theories

Leadership styles are similar to teaching styles in that they require a certain amount of flexibility and adaptability; in reality, there is no singular ideal theory. In this way, the study of leadership and the management of the same, as shown by the previous discussion theories about leadership, are multidimensional. However, in reading through various studies on the subject, two come to the forefront as being more applicable than others: Transformational Leadership Theory and the Servant Leadership Theory since both stress the importance of communication and trust amongst administration, staff, and faculty. Transformational Leadership Theory Transformational Leadership theory was developed in 1978 by James McGregor Burns, â€Å"who saw leadership as the motivation of followers to achieve goals that met individual as well as the changing needs of the organization† (Giles, 2006, p. 259). â€Å"Transformational leaders are visionaries, role models, and facilitators who prepare their employees to work in dynamic environment† (Hawkins, 2009, p 43). Burns later expanded his theory, by adding that â€Å"transformational leaders manage with morals, tenacity, selflessness and have good political skills† (Hawkins, 2009, p 43). This leadership theory has continued to evolve over time with the changing of the world. A more modern take on transformational leadership theory in education would be as follows: â€Å"A transformational leader typically has a charismatic vision and personality and is able to inspire his followers to accept change at their school. This leader acts as a moral agent who raises consciousness about professional practices and values in the school. He encourages educational creativity and innovation and fosters a sense of ownership by motivating others to commit to his vision. He does this by considering the specific needs of those who answer to him, thereby empowering them to change. (Cleary, 2011) Transformational Leadership Theory Flaws Although in theory a Transformational leader appears to encompass the mind set to lead a school district into the future, this study is also not without flaws. â€Å"Because environmental conditions are constantly changing, leadership must be able to manipulate the organizational culture to ensure the system’s ability to adapt to and survive in the environment through the evolution of new cultural assumptions† (Razik, 2010, p. 95). Major problems arise when â€Å"assumptions† become almost impossible to predict in an expanded school culture. Schools now need to adapt to conditions beyond their control as mandates from the State are increasing at a rapid rate while funding is decreasing just as quickly from both a state and local level. Transformational Leaders who have expressed their goals and ideals and been have been able to put them into practice with the support and cooperation of the faculty and staff are now faced with watching those goals suddenly stalled by unforeseen circumstances that go beyond the theory of being able to adapt and change. Any plans for the future become nearly impossible to implement under these conditions since the future, due to funding, is now so unpredictable. The practice of a unified vision under the realm of a well-liked and respected leader becomes non-existent when monies are limited, agreements become severed, and everyone views his or her concepts as being the most important to the needs of the district. The â€Å"consistency and constancy† that created the trust and unity amongst the administration, staff/faculty, and the community is no longer apparent, causing distention within the school organization (Hawkin, 2009). Servant Leadership Theory Although similar to the theory of Transformational Leadership in its use of open communication between the faculty and leader, the Servant Leadership Theory concentrates more on the needs of the individual rather than the unified understanding of the needs of the district. Servant leadership theory was coined and defined in a 1970 essay, The Servant as Leader, written by Robert Greenleaf (Serrat, 2009). As cited by Hawkins (2009), Greenleaf explained â€Å"the servant-leader is servant first†¦ It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Servant-leaders must have a sense for the unknowable to be able to foresee the unforeseeable. Servant-leaders have a power for healing that strengthens the bond between leaders and employees, allowing for difficult issues to be addressed†(Hawkins, 43). Greenleaf created a new theory in which the needs of the individual within the organization are paramount to the needs of the leader. Greenleaf suggests, â€Å"servant-leaders are deeply committed to the personal, professional, and spiritual growth of each and every individual within the institution† (Hawkins, 2009, p. 47). According to Hawkins (2009), servant leaders thoroughly analyze and build an understanding of what their employees and community stakeholders need in order to improve the well being of the entire community. A servant-leader encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, and the ethical use of power and empowerment (cited in Borden, 2003 p. 12). Servant Leadership Theory Flaws Even though this leadership theory appears to be the chosen one for the administrators in this particular school district, certain situations and/or individuals create an atmosphere where putting the theory into practice becomes extremely difficult. Not only is communication of the utmost importance, but putting aside egos and individual wants and needs for the good of the district is imperative. When personalities clash, and all involved have their own agenda, the district suffers. A function of this board of education, for example, is to lead, to maintain order in the district by overseeing that all involved are abiding by the rules and regulations. Once that board of education over reaches those boundaries, a sense of hostility and mistrust is left in its wake. On the surface, while seeking to acquire open communication with one’s staff members and meeting the needs of each one is ideal, it is also unrealistic. There are too many hands in the mix, too many ideas to sift through, too many egos to soothe. Until the majority in the school district can leave behind altruistic needs and concentrate solely on the ultimate goal, the theory of Servant Leadership will not succeed. Being a Successful Leader Razik (2010) states, â€Å"No one theory has embraced all the necessary variables to define satisfactorily the complexity of the leadership role or to predict best-case leadership scenarios† (p. 3). An educational leader must foster a vision of learning that focuses on the school, the community, as well as teaching and learning. The vision must be managed and evaluated constantly, by building effective interpersonal relationships based on the entire community’s needs. The educational leader must model integrity and show case ethics while understanding the political, social, economics and legal context that affect the educational system (Green, p. 14). â€Å"Effective principals and school administrators set the organizational direction and culture that influences their teacher and students performance† (ISLLC 2008, p. ). In order for principals/educational leaders to be effective they must be exceptional communicators and collaborators; without these skills leadership will fail. Effective communication and collaboration will help the educational leader â€Å"establish a climate of trust and mutual respect in which individuals feel empowered to be creative and offer suggestions for the enhancement of organizational goals† (Green, 2009, p. 3). If there is not trust and mutual respect in th e educational organization the visions can not be obtained and students success will not be achieved. An educational leader must foster a vision of learning that focuses on the school, the community, as well as teaching and learning. The vision must be managed and evaluated constantly, by building effective interpersonal relationships based on the entire community’s needs. The educational leader must model integrity and showcase ethics while understanding the political, social, economics and legal context that affect the educational system (Green, 2009, p. 14). The leader plays various roles of directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating as individuals and the group mature and become able to perform activities. Group maturity depends on individual maturity (Razik, 2010, p. 88). As with any study put into practice, the key is past experience, the realization and agreement of what worked and what did not, and the ability to reach an agreement on the most efficient and beneficial way to move forward. Although by opinion, there is no leadership strategy without flaws that would guarantee effectiveness, Transformational and Servant Leadership theories, due to their stress on communication and trust amongst those involved with the vision and goal for the school district, appear to be the best starting point.

Euthanasia

Topic: Euthanasia General Purpose: To Persuade Specific Purpose: I want to persuade my audience to be against euthanasia. Thesis: Legalizing Euthanasia Central Idea In Hippocratic Oath, Hippocrates as a father of medicine swears, â€Å"I will not give a lethal drug to anyone if I am asked, nor will I advise such a plan† (National Library of Medicine, p. 6).In other words, Hippocrates was against euthanasia. According to the Dictionary. om the definition of euthanasia is â€Å"the act of putting to death painlessly or allowing to die, as by withholding extreme medical measures, a person or animal suffering from an incurable, especially painful, disease or condition† (Dictionary. com, p. 1). It is also called a mercy killing, some people think that this is a good decision and some don’t. I personally, believe that this is not right; an individual should go into the afterlife naturally. 1. On one side there are people that justify this act as helping a terminally il l individual end his/her sufferings.For example, when an individual was in a house fire and burnt sixty percent of his skin and is going to die but he chooses euthanasia in order to stop the pain. In that case he will die eventually and there are many painkillers that can soothe his pain and help him spend more time with his family. Another case is when a person has been in vegetative state for a long time and eventually the relatives decide to turn the machines off and let the individual die.This is a very sensitive case because if a person didn’t want to die but didn’t have a living will, legally their spouse can pull the plugs off even if the person’s parents would be against it. And let’s not forget that technically if a brain shows a minimum of activity, the person is still considered alive. I consider turning off the machine is same as giving up on a person. 2. On the other side, there are people that are against it, including me, I consider it as m anslaughter, even though an ill person is agreed to die.It is also against my religion, all humans are made in God’s image and God gave us life so we should respect it. At this moment, euthanasia is illegal in every state in the U. S. , not counting two states like Oregon and Washington. In Oregon they have an act called Oregon Death with Dignity Act and in Washington State they have the same act, except it is called the Washington Death with Dignity Act. (Wikipedia, p. 19).I am against legalizing euthanasia because there are some people that are not in sound mind, they may have suicidal thoughts and they will ask their doctor or people around them to help them stop their pain. If euthanasia will be legal some people will be forced to sign their consent to death, when he/she doesn’t know what he/she is signing; for example, a man in a nursing home that cannot read, or hear anymore is asked to sign the consent to his death, he will do it because he will trust people aro und him, people that take care of him.He will go along the process because he wouldn’t even understand what is going on. The reason why people would do that is when they are tired of him or they spend too much money on him so they will try get rid of him, I know it sounds awful but you will be surprised what people are capable of doing because of the money. Also, like I mentioned before, euthanasia is against Hippocratic Oath that every doctor takes before they get their license, in other words, it is against doctor’s moral responsibilities.When we think about euthanasia being legal in every state there would be many horrible cases that we cannot even think of. 3. You probably have a question on where it started. Well according to the History. com Adolf Hitler came up with this idea (History. com, p. 1). He ordered to kill all handicapped and mentally ill children. In addition, after that he moved on to adults and senior population. Hitler called it mercy killing becau se supposedly he was helping people to get out of their â€Å"misery† but it was a way of saving money.I believe that euthanasia is not right, no matter from what angles you look at it, it is manslaughter and as a human being I would not follow Hitler’s way of dealing with sick and dependant people. We should respect life that was given to us by God and end it in a natural way because this is how we were made.ReferencePage North, Michael. â€Å"Greek Medicine | Hippocrates | The Oath. †Ã‚  National Library of Medicine – National Institutes of Health. 24 June 2010. Web. 14 Nov. 2011. <http://www. nlm. nih. gov/hmd/greek/greek_oath. html> â€Å"Euthanasia | Define Euthanasia at Dictionary. com.Dictionary. com | Find the Meanings and Definitions of Words at Dictionary. com. Web. 14 Nov. 2011. <http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/euthanasia>. â€Å"Hitler Suspends Euthanasia Program — History. com This Day in History — 8/18/19 41. â€Å"History. com — History Made Every Day — American & World History.A&E Television Network. Web. 14 Nov. 2011. <http://www. history. com/this-day-in-history/hitler-suspends-euthanasia-program>. â€Å"Suicide Legislation. †Ã‚  Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 4 Nov. 2011. Web. 14 Nov. 2011. <http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Suicide_legislation>. Euthanasia Good day to the teacher and my fellow learners, my speech topic for today is on legalising euthanasia. Imagine yourself being unable to walk, unable to see, and can barely breathe let alone speak. You are in such unbearable pain that you can’t even cry. Your life was well lived all those years before but now, there is no way that you could function without assistance. You think and feel as if your life has no meaning. Although your family is there for your every step of the way you begin to think, could ending your life be the answer to the pain? Well in all reality this isn’t something anyone needs to imagine. This is a real situation for many, many people. These people should be able to make their own choices and have control of their own lives. Everyone has the right to choose how they want to live and die. First of all, deciding if you want to be alive or not is a personal decision. Neither the doctors nor the government has the power to decide if you should live or not. Since it is not their life and they are not in your situation, they cannot make that kind of decision for you. It might sound like suicide, but again, that is our problem, not theirs. They give us the liberty to decide our job, our family, our religion, and even our sex preference. Why should they not give us the right to decide if we want to live or not? That should be the first right before all the ones I have mentioned. It is not logical that we can choose in all those other decisions if we cannot first choose to live or die. It has been argued that for people on life support systems and people with long standing diseases causing much pain and distress, euthanasia is a better choice. It helps in relieving them from pain and misery. In cases like terminal cancers when the patient is in much pain and when people associated with them also are put through a lot of pain and misery, it is much more practical and humane to grant the person their wish to end their own life in a relatively painless and merciful way. Everyone has the right to choose how they want to live and die. Euthanasia is perceived by other people as the answer to their want of a quality life. Spending the rest of your life on a hospital bed, unable to walk, and unable to do the things you normally do, doesn’t define a good quality of life. After all, it is the patient who got to decide how he or she wants to live his life. Euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide is the best thing a doctor can offer to a dying patient since he or she cannot offer a patient something that’ll make his condition better. How can say that your life is not worth living anymore? No one but you can decide on this matter. Life and death is a personal decision. Your family, friends, the doctors, and even the government can’t help you decide. Death is a final decision, a final destination. Think about it, euthanasia is about giving people the right to choose how they want to live and die and it also stops the person from having a bad quality of life. Goeie dag vir die onderwyser en my mede-leerders, my toespraak onderwerp vir vandag op te wettig genadedood. Verbeel jou nie in staat is om te loop, nie in staat om te sien, en kan skaars asemhaal laat staan praat. Jy is in so ‘n ondraaglike pyn wat jy kan nie eens huil. Jou lewe was goed geleef al die jare voor, maar nou is daar geen manier wat jy kan funksioneer sonder hulp. Jy dink en voel asof jou lewe het geen betekenis nie. Hoewel jou familie is daar vir jou elke stap van die manier waarop jy begin om te dink, kan die beeindiging van jou lewe wees om die antwoord op die pyn? Wel in alle werklikheid dit is nie iets wat iemand nodig het om te dink. Dit is ‘n werklike situasie vir baie, baie mense. Hierdie mense moet in staat wees om hul eie keuses te maak en om beheer oor hul eie lewens het. Elkeen het die reg om te kies hoe hulle wil leef en sterf. Eerste van alles, besluit of jy wil om te leef of nie, is ‘n persoonlike besluit. Nog die dokters en die regering het die mag om te besluit of jy moet leef of nie. Want dit is nie hul lewe en hulle is nie in jou situasie, kan hulle nie maak dat die soort van besluit vir jou. Dit mag dalk klink soos selfmoord, maar weer, dit is ons probleem, nie hulle s'n. Hulle gee ons die vryheid om ons werk te besluit, ons familie, ons godsdiens, en selfs ons seks voorkeur. Hoekom moet hulle nie gee ons die reg om te besluit of ons wil om te lewe of nie? Dit moet die eerste reg voor al die mense wat ek genoem het nie. Dit is nie logies dat ons kan kies om in al die ander besluite as ons kan nie eers kies om te leef of sterf. Dit is aangevoer dat vir die mense op die lewe ondersteuning stelsels en mense met ‘n lang siektes veroorsaak baie pyn en kommer, genadedood is ‘n beter keuse. Dit help met die verligting van hulle van pyn en ellende. In gevalle soos terminale kanker wanneer die pasient in baie pyn en wanneer mense wat verband hou met hulle ook gestel word deur ‘n baie pyn en ellende is, is dit baie meer praktiese en menslike aan die persoon verleen hulle hul eie lewe te eindig in ‘n relatief pynloos en barmhartige manier. Elkeen het die reg om te kies hoe hulle wil leef en sterf. Genadedood is waargeneem deur ander mense as die antwoord op hul gebrek aan ‘n kwaliteit lewe. Die besteding van die res van jou lewe op ‘n hospitaal bed, nie in staat om te loop, en nie die dinge wat jy gewoonlik doen om te doen, definieer nie ‘n goeie gehalte van die lewe. Na alles, dit is die pasient wat het om te besluit hoe hy of sy wil he dat sy lewe te lei. Genadedood of geneesheer-geassisteerde selfmoord is die beste ding wat ‘n dokter kan bied aan ‘n sterwende pasient sedert hy of sy kan nie ‘n pasient iets wat sal maak sy toestand beter te bied. Hoe kan se dat jou lewe nie die moeite werd is nie? Niemand, maar jy kan besluit oor hierdie saak. Lewe en dood is ‘n persoonlike besluit. Jou familie, vriende, die dokters, en selfs die regering kan nie help om te besluit. Die dood is ‘n finale besluit neem, ‘n finale bestemming. Dink daaroor, genadedood is oor gee mense die reg om te kies hoe hulle wil leef en sterf en dit het ook tot stilstand kom die persoon van ‘n slegte gehalte van die lewe.

Attachment, Loss and Bereavement

This essay describes and evaluates the contributions of Bowlby, Ainsworth, Murray-Parkes, Kubler-Ross and Worden, as well as later theorists, to their respective fields. I demonstrate how I already work with some of these models, highlighting my strengths and areas for development. I emphasise some influences on Bowlby’s work, leading to his trilogy Attachment 1969; Separation 1973; and Loss, Sadness and Depression 1980; demonstrating how attachments in infancy may shape our attachment styles in later life.Pietromonaco and Barrett posit â€Å"A central tenet of attachment theory is that people develop mental representations, or internal working models that consist of expectations about the self, significant others and the relationship between the two. † (Pietromonaco and Barrett, 2000, 4:2, p156). I illustrate how this internal working model is developed via the relationship between infant and primary caregiver, demonstrating that maternal deprivation can create a †˜faulty’ internal working model, which may lead to psychopathology in later life.I also demonstrate how these internal working models influence our reactions to loss and bereavement in adulthood and their potential impact on the counselling relationship. In addition, I explore the multi-layered losses experienced by HIV+ gay men and finally draw some conclusions. Freud’s view on the infant’s attachment to its mother was quite simple â€Å"the reason why the infant in arms wants to perceive the presence of its mother is only because it already knows by experience that she satisfies all its needs without delay.† (Freud, 1924, p188 cited in Eysenck, 2005, p103).In contrast, behaviourists believed that feeding played a central role in the development of attachment. (Pendry, 1998; Eysenck, 2005). These theories were termed ‘secondary-drive theories’. In 1980, Bowlby recalled â€Å"this [secondary drive] theory did not seem to me to fit the facts †¦. but, if the secondary dependency was inadequate, what was the alternative? † (Bowlby,1980, p650 cited in Cassidy and Shaver, 1999, p3).Bowlby’s theory was influenced by his paper â€Å"Forty Four Juvenile Thieves†, where he concluded a correlation exists between maternal deprivation in infancy, leading to affectionless psychopathology and subsequent criminal behaviour in adolescents. (Bowlby, 1944, 25, p19-52). This led to him researching the impact of loss on children displaced through war and institutionalisation, resulting in ‘Maternal Care and Mental Health’ (1952), where he confirms a link between ‘environmental trauma’ and resultant disturbances in child development.As a result of this research, Bowlby concluded â€Å"it is psychological deprivation rather than the economic, nutritional or medical deprivation that is the cause of troubled children. † (Bowlby in Coates, 2004, 52, p577). He was further influenced by L orenz who found that goslings would follow and ‘attach’ themselves to the first moving object they saw. This following of the first moving object was called ‘imprinting’. (Lorenz, 1937 cited in Kaplan, 1998, p124).Clearly babies cannot follow at will – to compensate for this, †Bowlby noted that ‘imprinting’ manifested itself as a spectacularly more complex phenomenon in primates, including man, which he later labelled ‘attachment’. † (Hoover, 2004, 11:1, p58-60). He also embraced the work of Harlow and Zimmerman who worked with infant rhesus monkeys demonstrating that not only did the need for attachment give them security, but that this need took priority over their need for food. (Harlow and Zimmerman 1959 cited in Green and Scholes, 2003, p9).Dissatisfied with traditional theories, Bowlby embraced new understandings through discussion with colleagues from such fields as developmental psychology, ethology, cont rol systems theory and cognitive science, leading him to formulate his theory that the mechanisms underlying the infant’s tie to the mother originally emerged as a result of evolutionary and biological pressures. (Cassidy and Shaver, 1999; Green and Scholes, 2003).Defining his attachment theory as â€Å"a way of conceptualising the propensity of human beings to make strong affectional bonds to particular others.† (Bowlby, 1979 cited in Green and Scholes, 2003, p7), he posited â€Å"that it is our affectional bonds to attachment figures that engage us in our most intense emotions. † and that â€Å"this occurs during their formation (we call that ‘falling in love), in their maintenance (which we describe as ‘loving) and in their loss (which we know as ‘grieving’), (Green and Scholes, 2003, p8), thereby replacing the secondary-drive theory with a model emphasising the role relationships play in attachment and loss. (Waters, Crowell, Elliot t et all, 2002, 4, p230-242).Disregarding what he called Freud's ‘cupboard love’ theory of attachment, he believed instead that a child is born ‘biologically pre-disposed’ to become attached to its mother, claiming this bond has two essential features: the biological function of securing protection for survival and the physiological and psychological need for security. (Green and Scholes, 2003; Schaffer, 2004). Sonkin (2005) describes four features to this bond: secure base, separation protest, safe haven and proximity maintenance.The concept of a secure base is fundamental to attachment theory and is used to describe a dependable attachment to a primary caregiver. This secure base is established by providing consistent levels of safety, responsiveness and emotional comfort from within which the infant can explore his or her external and internal worlds and to which they can return, thus providing a sense of security. Separation protest is exhibited as a si gn of the distress experienced upon separation from an attachment figure, who may also be used as a safe haven to turn to for comfort in times of distress.When safety is threatened, infants attract the attention of their primary caregiver through crying or screaming. Maintaining attention and interest, e. g. vocalising and smiling, and seeking or maintaining proximity, e. g. following or clinging, all serve to promote the safety provided by the secure base (providing of course that parents respond appropriately). (Holmes, 1993; Cassidy and Shaver 1999; Becket, 2002; Green and Scholes, 2003).Proximity seeking is a two way process, for example child seeking parent or parent seeking child. (Weiss in Murray-Parkes, Stevenson-Hinde and Marris, 1991; Becket, 2004; Sonkin, 2007). Bowlby also recognised ‘unwilling’ separation caused by parents who were phsycially present but not able to respond, or who deprived infants of love or ill-treated them, left them with a sense of imme nse deprivation and that this unwilling separation and resultant loss leads to deep emotional distress. (Green and Scholes, 2003).At a recent conference, the Centre for Attachment based Psychoanalytical Psychotherapy (CAPP) asserts â€Å"Early interactions with significant others in which there are fundamental failures of empathy, attunement, recognition and regulation of emotional states, have been shown to cause the global breakdown of any coherent attachment strategy, thus engendering fears of disintegration and threatening psychic survival. In the face of such experiences, powerful dissociative defences may be employed, encapsulating overwhelming feelings of fear, rage and shame. † (CAPP, 2007).Together with Robertson and Rosenbluth, Bowlby demonstrated that even brief separation from the mother has profound emotional effects on the infant. Their research highlighted a three stage behavioural response to this separation: protest – related to separation anxiety; des pair – related to grief and mourning; and detachment – related to defences. (Robertson, Rosenbluth, Bowlby, 1952 in Murray-Parkes, Stevenson-Hinde and Marris, 1991). Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters and Wall (1978) later established the inter-relatedness between attachment behaviour, maternal sensitivity and exploration in the child.Under clinical settings, they sought to observe the effects of temporary separation from the mother, which was assessed via the ‘strange situation’ procedure. This study involved children between the ages of 12 to 18 months who experienced separation from their mother, introduction to an unfamiliar adult and finally reunion with their mother. Ainsworth et al reasoned that if attachment was strong, mother would be used as a secure base from which the infant could explore, thereby promoting self-reliance and autonomy. Upon separation, infants usually demonstrated separation anxiety.Upon re-union, the mother’s maternal sensitivity and the child’s responses were observed, thus providing a link between Bowlby’s theory and its application to individual experience. The trust/mistrust in the infant’s ability to explore their world from the secure base is re-inforced by Erikson’s (1965) examination of early development and the child’s experiencing of the world as a place that is nurturing, reliable and trustworthy (or not). Influenced by Ainsworth’s previous work in Uganda, the ‘strange situation’ led to the classification of secure or insecure attachment styles in infants.Insecure styles were further grouped into insecure/avoidant and insecure/resistant (ambivalent). (Pendry, 1998; Holmes, 2001; Eysenck, 2005). Main and Solomon later added a fourth attachment style – insecure/disorganised. (Main and Solomon, 1986 in Cassidy and Shaver, 1999, p290). Throughout all of these interactions, an ‘internal working model’ is developed, the cultivat ion of which relies on the dyadic patterns of relating between primary caregiver and infant (Bretherton, 1992, 28, p759-775), comprising the complex monitoring of internal states of primary caregiver and infant.  (Waters, Crowell, Elliott et al, 2002, 4, p230-242).According to Schore â€Å"These formative experiences are embedded in the developing attachment relationship – nature and nurture first come together in mother-infant psychobiological interactions. † (Schore, 2001, 17, p26). Over time, this leads to the infant’s ability to self-monitor their emotions (affect regulation), but until such time, Bowlby posited the mother acts as the child’s ego and super-ego †She orients him in space and time, provides his environment, permits the satisfaction of some impulses, restricts others.She is his ego and his super-ego. † (Bowlby, 1951, p53 cited in Bretherton, 1992, 28, p765). Bowlby concluded a healthy internal working model is â€Å"a worki ng model of an attachment figure who is conceived as accessible, trustworthy and ready to help when called upon†, whilst a ‘faulty’ model is â€Å"a working model of an attachment figure to whom are attributed such characteristics as uncertain accessibility, unwilllingness to respond helpfully, or perhaps the likelihood of responding hostilely. † (Bowlby, 1979, p141).Ainsworth suggests that positive attachment is more than explicit behaviour â€Å"it is built into the nervous system, in the course and as a result of the infant’s experience of his transactions with the mother. † (Ainsworth, 1967, p429), thus supporting Bowlby’s theory. Later descriptions of attachment styles describe secure attachment as â€Å"the development of the basic machinery to self-regulate affects later in life†, (Fonagy, Gergely and Jurist, 2002 cited in Sarkar and Adshead, 2006, 12, p297), whilst insecure attachment â€Å"prevents the development of a proper affect regulatory capacity.† (Sarkar and Adshead, 2006, 12, p297).This is supported by Schore (2003) who alludes to developmental affective neuroscience to set out a framework for affect regulation and dysregulation. Based on research into the development of the infant brain, he reviews neuro-scientific evidence to confirm the infant’s relationship with the primary caregiver has a direct effect on the development of brain structures and pathways involved in both affect regulation and dysregulation.The research and evidence suggests the internal working model begins as soon as the child is born and is the model upon which future relationships are formed. The quality of the primary caregiver’s response to infant distress provides the foundation upon which behavioural and cognitive strategies are developed, which in the longer term influence thoughts, feelings and behaviours in adult relationships. (Cardwell, Wadeley and Murphy, 2000; Pietromonaco and Barrett , 2000, 4:2, p155; Madigan, Moran and Pederson, 2006, 42:2, p293).A healthy, secure attachment to the primary caregiver would therefore appear essential for a child’s social, emotional and intellectual development, whilst interruption to this attachment would appear to promote the premise of psychopathology in later life. Whilst some evidence exists to demonstrate internal working models can be modified by different environmental experiences, (Riggs, Vosvick and Stallings, 2007, 12:6, p922-936), the extent to which they can change remains in question.Bowlby himself postulated â€Å"clinical evidence suggests that the necessary revisions of the model are not always easy to achieve. Usually they are completed but only slowly, often they are done imperfectly, and sometimes done not at all. † (Bowlby, 1969, p83). Whilst change may be possible, the unconscious aspects of internal working models are deemed to be specifically resistant to such change. (Prior and Glaser, 2006) . We can safely assume therefore, that in the majority of cases, internal working models tend to persist for life.I concur with Rutter’s criticism of Bowlby's concept of ‘monotropy’, i.e. Bowlby’s belief that babies develop one primary attachment, usually the mother, (Rutter, 1981 cited in Lucas, 2007, 13, p156 and in Eysenck 2005), accepting instead that infants form multiple attachments. This is supported by a study by Shaffer and Emmerson (1964) who concluded infants form a ‘hierarchy’ of attachments, often with the mother as the primary attachment figure, although nearly a third of children observed highlighted the father as the primary attachment figure. (Schaffer and Emmerson, 1964 in Cassidy and Shaver, 1999, p44-67).Collins, Dunlop and Chrysler criticise Bowlby’s ‘lens’ in that it was â€Å"limited by his own cultural, historical and class position. Bowlby’s culturally biased assumptions and empiricist metho ds of inquiry concentrated on individualised detachment and loss as part of the normal course of mourning loss, which perpetuated the Western tradition of preserving the autonomous individual self as the normal goal of development. † (Collins, Dunlop and Chrysler, 2002, p98), leading them to conclude Bowlby’s assumptions ignored other cultural practices (as did Ainsworths), with which I agree.They also suggest Bowlby’s concept of maternal deprivation was perhaps exploited to get women to return to the home post World War II – â€Å"Characterised as a choice, this ‘homeward bound’ movement was supported by the various governments, whose maternalist and pronatalist ideology of the 1930s continued into the post-war period to provide a rationale for sending women home to reproduce †¦ maternalism and the maternal deprivation hypothesis provided one conceptual framework for pronatal ideology as it intersected  with the demands of governments and industrialists. † (Collins, Dunlap and Chrysler, 2002, p102).We must also remember that Bowlby’s observations â€Å"were based on children who had been separated from their primary caregivers during the Second World War† (Lemma, 2003 cited in Lucas, 2007, 13, p156), and that these procedures â€Å"were based on behaviours that occurred during stressful situations rather than under normal circumstances. † (Lucas, 2007, 13, p156) [this latter criticism also applies to Ainsworth’s work].Nonetheless, in highlighting the damaging effects of institutionalised care on young children, Bowlby’s strengths lie in drawing attention to the role attachment, attachment behaviour and attachment behavioural systems play in a child’s development and the subsequent potential consequences of disruption to the bond between infant and primary caregiver. I concur with Cassidy and Shaver’s (1999) criticisms of the strange situation in that there a re too many unconsidered variables for a firm theory to be established at the time of Ainsworth’s writings, accepting their view that she did not consider the mood nor temperament of the child.Nonetheless, Ainsworth et al have provided a tool with which to measure attachment styles in infants, which is still in use today. Later research by George, Kaplan and Main assesses adult internal models through the use of the Adult Attachment Interview. This classification of adult attachment styles promotes the idea of models extending into adulthood as a template for future relationships. (George, Kaplan and Main 1985 cited in Pendry, 1998).Hazan and Shaver continued this line of research identifying patterns of attachment behavior in adult romantic relationships, concluding the same four attachment styles identified in infancy remain true for adult relationships. (Hazan and Shaver 1987 in Cassidy and Shaver, 1999, p355-377). Although theoretically rooted in the same innate system, a dult romantic attachment styles differ from parent-child bonds to include reciprocity of attachment and caregiving, as well as sexual mating.  (Hazan and Zeifman, 1999 in Cassidy and Shaver, 1999, p336-354).The literature on bereavement has become inseparable from Bowlby’s theory of attachment and, following from this, the way in which people react to the loss of this attachment. On reflecting on losses in adult life, Weinstein (2008) observes Bowlby’s persistence of formative attachments and how the pattern of protest, despair and detachment that follows a baby’s separation from its primary caregiver is re-activated and presented in full force in adult loss.Weinstein writes â€Å"The ability of the adult to cope with attachment in intimate relationships to negotiate independence, dependency and inter-dependency; and to manage loss is all about how successfully they coped with separation as an infant. As a baby they had to retain their sense of their mother e ven in her absence and now as adults, as part of the mourning process, they strengthen their own identity with the support of the internalised object. † (Weinstein, 2008, p34).According to Murray-Parkes (1996), the intensity and duration of this grief is relative to what is lost and the grief process is an emotional response to this loss. Murray-Parkes joined Bowlby at the Tavistock Centre in 1962. Together they presented a paper linking the protests of separation highlighted by Robertson, Rosenbluth and Bowlby (1952) in young children separated from their mothers, to grief in adults. (Bowlby and Murray-Parkes, 1970 in Murray-Parkes, Stevenson-Hinde and Marris, 1991, p20).Around the same time, Murray-Parkes visited Kubler-Ross who was conducting her own research into death and dying. This work was later published in ‘On Death and Dying’ (1969) which examines the process of coming to terms with terminal illness or grief in five stages: denial; anger; bargaining; de pression and acceptance. Murray-Parkes later produced a four-phase grief model consisting: shock or numbness; yearning and pining; disorganisation and despair; and re-organisation.In contrast to the passive staged/phased approaches by Kubler-Ross and Murray-Parkes, and perhaps more in line with Freud’s concept of having ‘to do grief work’, Worden developed a four-staged, task-based grief model: â€Å"to accept the reality of the loss; to work through the pain of grief; to adjust to an environment in which the deceased is missing; and to emotionally relocate the deceased and move on with life. † (Worden, 2003). All three models are deemed to be therapeutically useful in that they recognise grief as a process and provide a framework of descriptors for ‘normalising’ grief reactions.That said, they are clearly prescriptive and caution should be exercised in taking any of these prescriptive stages, phases or tasks literally. It is equally important to recognise the uniqueness of individual responses to loss and to avoid prescribing where a client ‘ought’ to be in their grieving process. Since these models were never designed as a linear process, it is likewise important not to steer clients through these stages. This is supported by Schuchter and Zisook (1993), who assert â€Å"Grief is not a linear process with concrete boundaries but, rather, a composite of overlapping, fluid phases that vary from person to person.† (Schuchter and Zisook, 1993 in Stroebe, Stroebe and Hansson, 1993, p23).I agree with Servaty-Seib’s observations â€Å"the stage/phase approaches emerged solely from a death-loss focus †¦ Worden’s work was an important development in the understanding of the process of coping adaptively with bereavement as each task is clearly defined in an action-oriented manner. † (Servaty-Seib, 2004, 26:2, p125). Stroebe and Schut’s dual process model brings together death- loss focus and task-based models. (Stroebe and Schut, 2001 cited in Servaty-Seib, 2004, 26:2, p125).In my work at Positive East, I work with HIV+ gay men experiencing multi-layered loss. My philosophy is to build and maintain a therapeutic relationship within a safe, confidential, contained space where clients can explore their issues. The archetype ‘working towards a model of gay affirmative therapy’ (Davies and Neal, 1996, p24-40) provides me with a framework within which to explore gay culture and to apply an assenting approach to the work, which I believe promotes empathy and helps me to work in the best interests of the client.Conducting my own assessments, I complete a full client history, genogram and timeline, which provides a comprehensive insight into clients attachments and losses. It is important to acknowledge the social context within which multi-layered loss takes place (e. g. heterosexism, homophobia, HIV-related stigma) as well as recognising that indiv idual attachment styles may influence individual reactions to these losses and may also impact on the counselling relationship.Losses experienced by HIV+ gay men include loss of identity, health, appearance, mobility, self-respect, career, financial security, relationships and intimacy. (Riggs, Vosvick and Stallings, 2007, 12:6, p922-936; Koopman, Gore-Felton, Marouf et al, 2000, 12:5, p663-672; Fernandez and Ruiz, 2006, p356). Corr, Nabe and Corr (1997) describe these losses as the cognitive, affective and behavioural responses to the impact of the loss. In identifying attachment styles in HIV+ adults, Riggs, Vosvick and Stallings (2007) found that 90% of gay and bisexual HIV+ adults recruited into their study demonstrated insecure attachment.They suggest the diagnosis of HIV produces a strong trauma reaction, impacting on adult attachment style. In the same study, they found that HIV+ heterosexual adults were more likely to be secure, whereas gay and bisexual adults were more like ly to be fearful, preoccupied, avoidant; or dismissing, respectively. This led them to conclude that gay and bisexual people must therefore contend with societal forces that their heterosexual counterparts do not.They hypothesise â€Å"A diagnosis of HIV may be reminiscent of the coming out process, particularly with respect to concerns regarding stigma and disclosure, and thus may provoke similar fears about rejection by loved ones and society as a whole that contribute to greater attachment insecurity. † (Riggs, Vosvick and Stallings, 2007, 12:6, p931). This is supported by Koopman, Gore-Felton, Marouf et al (2000) who cite attachment style as a contributing factor associated with the high levels of stress experienced by HIV+ individuals.They comment â€Å"From this perspective, perceived stress is likely to be greater among [HIV+] persons having a highly anxious attachment style because their hypervigilance in interpersonal relationships leads to misinterpreting othersâ⠂¬â„¢ behaviours as rejecting or critical of themselves. † (Koopman, Gore-Felton, Marouf et al, 2000, 12:5, p670). This would suggest that HIV+ gay men with insecure attachment style may experience difficulties in developing and maintaining relationships, which, in turn, may impact on the therapeutic relationship.Additionally, according to Kelly, Murphy, Bahr et al â€Å"Dependable and supportive attachments play a crucial role in adjusting to HIV infection. Lack of such attachments and social support has been shown to be a significant predictor of emotional stress among HIV+ adults. † (Kelly, Murphy, Bahr et al, 1993, 12:3, p215-219). This has significant implications for the psychological well being of HIV+ gay men whom, considering their perceived attachment difficulties, may experience difficulties in forming such supportive relationships.In examining the suitability of the common grief models when working with this client group, I accept Copp’s criticism of the Kubler-Ross model for its focus on psychosocial dynamics â€Å"to the exclusion of physical, and to a lesser extent, spiritual dimensions. † (Copp, 1998, 28:2, p383). I also agree with Knapp’s criticisms of the staged/phased grief models espoused by Kubler-Ross and Murray-Parkes. Knapp observes â€Å"while both of these models may be applicable to those experiencing a singular loss, neither model takes into  consideration the multiplicity of losses thrust upon the seropositive gay male population.These men experience overlapping losses, resulting in them being at differing stages with respect to different losses. † (Knapp, 2000, 6:2, p143). Knapp offers a similar criticism of the Worden model in that â€Å"task models fail to account for the continuity of loss in the lives of seropositive gay men. † (Knapp, 2000, 6:2, p143), with which I also concur. In addition, all three models incorporate an end point, which suggests the completion of a cycle, th ereby pre-supposing some sort of finality.These models are therefore limited in their application to my own work, since, as new losses take the place of old, my clients find themselves in a continual cycle of loss without the comfort of such an end point. Processing the loss of the ‘pre-infected self’ and re-defining the ‘HIV+ self’ often means working with the stage of identity vs role confusion in Erikson’s (1965) psychosocial model. Additionally, where partners stay together, a revisiting and re-negotiation of the adult stage of intimacy may be required since intimacy is often disrupted and sometimes lost due to HIV infection.This stage is also revisited by clients where a partner chooses to end the relationship with a HIV+ partner. Working through the loss of the partner (usually due to fear of infection); as well as other significant relationships (usually due to HIV related stigma); is also key to the work. To support this work, I use the †™multi-dimensional’ grief model by Schuchter and Zisook (1993), adopting four of their five dimensions: emotional and cognitive responses; emotional pain; changes in relationships and changes in identity.  (Schuchter and Zisook, 1993 in Stroebe, Stroebe and Hansson, 1993, p26-43).I have also used Worden’s grief model in supporting a HIV+ client whose HIV infected partner committed suicide. This work is clearly demanding and is informed by the client’s internal working model of self and other. Due to perceived stigma and fear of rejection, it is not unusual for the client’s attachment behavioural system to be activated throughout the therapeutic relationship. Recent research highlights the mirroring of Bowlby’s theory within such a relationship.Parish and Eagle (2003) and Sonkin (2005) draw attention to the manifestation of clients seeking proximity maintenance to the therapist; experiencing distress when the therapist is not available; seeking a safe haven when in distress; and using the therapist as a secure base. To cater for this, I strive to provide a secure base in therapy, ensuring I remain boundaried, punctual and professional, informing clients of any breaks and provide opportunities for clients to explore their anxieties. Clients in particular distress may also contact the agency, who in turn may contact me.My experience has taught me that clients with avoidant attachment styles take time to build trust in the therapeutic relationship. I have also found the avoidant attached usually need permission/re-assurance to grieve their losses, whilst the anxiously attached require permission/re-assurance to stop grieving their losses. I am cognisant that the therapeutic relationship promotes attachment yet at the same time acknowledge the paradox in severing this attachment at the end of therapy. Ending sensitively is therefore crucial. I recognise that clients may develop co-morbid conditions such as alcohol and recreati onal drug abuse.In line with the BACP ethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence and self-respect (BACP Ethical Framework, 2007), I use supervision to monitor any emerging signs of such abuse, where a decision may be reached to refer these clients to external agencies or other, suitably experienced, internal counsellors. In assessing my strengths and areas for development, I am now much more aware of how early attachment experiences and internal working models impact on how clients process their losses as well as their potential impact on the counselling relationship and process.I have extensive experience of working with loss and bereavement, which is underpinned by my specialist training and practice at Positive East, as a bereavement counsellor with the Bereavement Service and as a counsellor providing support to those bereaved through homicide at Victim Support. I believe a healthy, secure attachment to a primary caregiver is necessary for a child’s social, emotio nal and intellectual development. In turn this promotes the development of a healthy internal working model, disruption to which may lead to psychopathology in later life.Whilst the internal working model tends to persist through the life course, I believe it can be modified by divergent experiences, but acknowledge this change may be difficult. Whilst I have extensive experience of working with loss, I now appreciate how early formative attachments influence our reactions to such loss and how these reactions may impact on the therapeutic relationship. Popular grief models clearly fall short in addressing the multi-layered losses experienced by this client group, demanding instead the integration of what is currently available.The high level of insecure attachment style demonstrated in HIV+ gay men may be due in part to the unique challenges they face within the context of HIV related stigma and negative social experiences. Finally, I believe my knowledge of theory and sensitive app lication of skills has proved to be an effective strategy in working competently, sensitively and safely with this client group. Nonetheless, I recognise the need for continuous professional development and aim to attend workshops on attachment; and mental health and HIV during the summer.